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The Second Opium War, often referred to as the Arrow War or the Second Anglo-Chinese War, took place between 1856 and 1860. This conflict arose from dissatisfaction with the treaties established in 1842 and 1844, which were heavily skewed in favour of Western powers.
Illustration by The Geostrata
These agreements significantly altered the dynamics of trade and commerce in China, a domain that had traditionally been a stronghold for the nation. Notably, during this period, Emperor Ch’ien-lung conveyed to King George III the sentiment that “We possess all things,” highlighting China's historical confidence in its own wealth and resources.
CHINA'S STRUGGLES AFTER THE FIRST OPIUM WAR
Between the First and Second Opium Wars, China found itself trapped in a rapidly changing world, desperately trying to maintain its sovereignty while being systematically dismantled by foreign powers.
The interval was not a period of peace but a careful recalibration of imperial strategies, where both China and Western powers were repositioning themselves for the next confrontation. As John K. Fairbank states, "The First Opium War was not an isolated incident, but the first tremor of a seismic shift that would fundamentally reshape China's place in the global order."
ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL PRESSURES ON CHINA
By 1856, the economy in China also suffered due to internal strife and foreign exploitation. The Qing government was facing immense pressure arising from the economic and social impact of the opium trade, as well as severe internal challenges like the Taiping Rebellion.
WESTERN EXPANSION AND ECONOMIC MOTIVES
On the other hand, Britain and France had economies driven by industrial expansion and were eager to expand their commercial and geopolitical influence in China. The continued restrictions on trade frustrated British and French interests, leading to the Second Opium War, which sought to expose China further to foreign trade and influence. As they had not achieved their aim in China, either locally in Canton or in the country as a whole.
The economic motivations for both the First and Second Opium Wars were rooted in trade imbalances, the opium trade, and the imperial ambitions of Western powers.
China’s economy was under increasing strain and foreign pressure by the time of the Second Opium War. As Opium was serving as an economic panacea for the British trade doldrums. “The Duke of Wellington declared in May 1838 that Parliament had not only refused to frown upon the opium traffic but cherished it, extended it, and promoted it.”
THE ARROW INCIDENT AND THE JUSTIFICATION FOR WAR
However, Opium was not the only factor in the Second War; the British attempted to enter the walled city of Canton. In the Arrow Incident (1856), Chinese officials boarded the British-registered ship "Arrow" and arrested its Chinese crew on suspicion of piracy, making it another factor in the war. British officials claimed that this violated the 1843 Treaty of the Bogue, which granted extraterritorial rights to foreign traders and diplomats, demanding an apology from China.
Western powers also wanted to establish a permanent diplomatic presence in Beijing. Senior officials were given authority over "barbarian affairs" by the central government, although the foreigners did not fully comprehend their positions and authority.
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The French, British, and American diplomats demanded that the treaties be changed in a single paper they delivered to the authorities in 1854, which included all of these issues. Lin Zexu's persuasive plea to Queen Victoria is among the most well-known texts and is frequently used as an illustration of a morally upright Chinese resistance to extraterritoriality:
“Suppose a man of another country comes to England to trade, he still has to obey English laws; how much more should he obey in China the laws of the Celestial Dynasty?”
ESCALATION OF CONFLICT AND TREATY DEMANDS
Trade between the West and China had not progressed as much as anticipated. The profitable opium trade remained illegal. Westerners focused on the inland and northern ports because they believed that would provide far more opportunities for international trade than the five ports in the Treaty of Nanking. So, the 2nd Opium War further entrenched foreign control over China's economy and laid the groundwork for additional unequal treaties that would diminish China's sovereignty and economic independence.
THE TREATY OF TIENSTIN AND ITS IMPACTS
The Treaties of Tientsin, a set of unfair agreements signed in June 1858, signalled a significant increase in Western power in China during the Second Opium War.
To further open China to Western trade and legal systems, the Qing Dynasty negotiated these treaties with a number of other nations, including the US, France, Russia, and the UK. From the legalisation of the opium trade and establishment of foreign embassies in Beijing, it also facilitated Christian missionary activities and opened additional ports for foreign trade.
EXTRATERRITORIALITY AND THE TREATY PORT SYSTEM
British Supreme Court in Shanghai, which was established in the 1860s in order to resolve criminal and civil cases between Britons, Chinese, and other nationalities. Huang Zonghan, the governor-general of Liangguang, gave a vivid account of the administration of justice under Parkes's regime in a tribute to the throne:
“Whenever there is a dispute between commoners and foreigners, the suit has to be brought to their military office, where their judge [lishi- guan] carries out the trial by himself. All cases are settled by fines, and in some suits, the fine may be as high as a thousand taels of silver. Sometimes, they send a note to Bogui and order him to send an official to sit in a joint trial [huishen]. When the official arrives he sits beneath the English and French judges, and although he is present, he is not allowed to talk, to spit or smoke; it is just as if he were held in invisible shackles [wuxing zhi zhigu]. If the case is not settled in one day, he has to return the following day.”
Takeshi Hamashita observes, “the treaty port system bridged the historical Chinese tribute order and the emerging international treaty order, marking a profound shift in East Asia’s political and economic dynamics”
In the emerging treaty port of Shanghai, the "mixed court" represented a microcosm of the larger imperial power dynamics. Parkes's judicial innovation reflected the treaty ports' role as spaces where Western legal frameworks were imposed, effectively undermining traditional Chinese judicial systems. These hybrid institutions became critical mechanisms through which foreign powers exercised extraterritorial rights, transforming treaty ports from mere commercial zones into complex sites of legal and cultural negotiation.
THE WAR'S LEGACY AND THE CENTURY OF HUMILIATION
In conclusion, since the middle of the 18th century, the principles of free trade and laissez faire had gained traction in England. In a few years, it wanted the same free and open trade in the world, giving rise to significant conflict. The Opium War is one of the conflicts in a larger frame. This conflict is emblematic of the broader patterns of imperialism during the 19th century. Western powers sought to impose their interests on Asian nations, often at great human and social cost.
In the Second Opium War, we see the extensive devastation wrought by British and French forces, particularly during the sacking of the Old Summer Palace in Beijing, which underscored the brutal realities of imperial conflict and sparked outrage. From the standpoint of contemporary historians like Peter Perdue: "The Opium Wars represented more than military confrontations; they were transformative moments that fundamentally restructured China's relationship with the global economic and political system.
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The treaty port system emerged as the most profound architectural innovation of imperial intervention, transforming China from a closed, hierarchical civilisation into a reluctant participant in the global economic order. These ports were far more than mere commercial zones; they were intricate laboratories of imperial power, where Western legal, economic, and cultural frameworks were systematically imposed upon a complex Chinese society.
The treaty ports represented a radical reimagining of spatial and jurisdictional boundaries. In Shanghai, Guangzhou, Amoy, Fuzhou, and Ningbo, hybrid institutions like the "mixed courts" demonstrated how extraterritoriality could become a sophisticated tool of imperial control.
These ports were more than commercial spaces—they were the frontline of a broader transformation, reshaping China's economic landscape and its entire conception of international relations, legal sovereignty, and cultural identity. The treaty port system would become a critical chapter in what Chinese historians would later term the "Century of Humiliation," a period that would profoundly shape China's future national narrative and approach to global interactions.
“The treaty port system was not merely an instrument of commerce but a mechanism of negotiation and transformation, embedding new spatial and jurisdictional norms while reshaping East Asia’s geopolitical landscape.” It became more than spaces of commerce; it symbolised the intersection of tradition and transformation, a legacy that continues to shape modern China.
BY SHRIYANSHU SATYAM
TEAM GEOSTRATA
Well researched
Strengthening a consolidated power against China in Asian region is required to curb the claws of dragon.