Climate Change and Its Impact on Ecosystem Services - A Global Perspective

"In every walk with nature, one receives far more than he seeks."

~ John Muirs

These words from John Muir articulate our strong emotional attachment to and the myriad of benefits from nature. However, climate change, mainly driven by anthropogenic activities, is drastically altering ecosystems across the globe. Changes in ecosystems can affect the services that they provide, some essential to human survival and others important for our quality of life.

Illustration by The Geostrata

Ecosystem services are commonly divided into four groups: provisioning services (such as food and water); regulating services (such as climate regulation and disease control); cultural services (such as the value from recreation and artistic inspiration); and supporting services, such as nutrient cycling and soil formation. The more rapid anthropogenic climate change becomes, the more it risks these services across both ecosystems and society.

Provisioning services, i.e. those directly extracted from ecosystems, are some of the most immediately impacted by climate change. For example, agriculture, which provides food and livelihood for more than half of the world’s population, depends greatly on climatic stability.

Many crops frequently grown in Africa, such as maize, are adversely affected by changes in rainfall and warmer temperatures. In most of Africa, the IPCC projects decline in maize yields of up to 22 per cent by 2050 as a cumulative effect of heat stress and water scarcities.

Its impact will be felt dramatically in a region already far behind in meeting its own development targets, compromising yet further food security, poverty and social instability. Similarly, provisioning services like fisheries are also changing.

In places such as Southeast Asia, as many as 100 million people rely on fisheries as a primary source of sustenance and livelihoods. In the region, warming seas and ocean acidification – both driven by the increasing atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide – are affecting marine ecosystems.

Changes in sea temperature and ocean pH are contributing to shifts in fish distribution and species composition. Moreover, coral reefs, which are the nursery grounds for many marine species, are bleaching and dying at scales never seen before. Loss of coral reefs leads to a decline in fish populations and, thus, the catch available to local communities. This impacts food security and also economic activities linked to fishing and tourism.

This delicate balance in the natural processes is also upset by climate change through services that are more subtle to our immediate daily lives, such as the loss of carbon sequestration by the Amazon Rainforest, often called the ‘lungs of the Earth’, which is a crucial global climate regulator due to its ability to absorb the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide.

Climate-driven droughts and fires make deforestation easier, and this in turn reduces the effective carbon sequestration of the rainforest, adding to global warming and, at the same time, reducing the worldwide water cycle.

In a world where extremes in weather are the new normal, rainfall in surrounding regions could decline because of the loss of the Amazon’s water-cycling functions. This loss of regulatory capacity in the Amazon exemplifies the connection between ecosystems and climate, in which changes to one system can cascade through the others.

A second vital regulatory function is provided by wetlands that act as natural floodwalls and water filters. In North America, sea-level rise and increased storm frequency and intensity, which come with a warmer climate, threaten wetlands. For instance, Louisiana’s wetlands are disappearing at a rate of 10-30 square kilometres per year due to a combination of sea-level rise and land subsidence. These wetlands protect against storm surges and filter out pollutants, and their loss not only increases storm vulnerability for coastal communities but also threatens freshwater resources.

Cultural and supporting services are often less tangible but no less vital. They are the non-material benefits people derive from ecosystems, such as recreation, spiritual enrichment, and the maintenance of cultural heritage. It is also one of the most biodiverse ecosystems on Earth, and supports a rich array of animal and plant life.

The reef is reeling from mass coral bleaching, a phenomenon caused by rising ocean temperatures. The aesthetic wonder of the reef is being diminished – as is the recreational value it provides.

Indigenous communities who consider it sacred are seeing their heritage fade away, and the biodiversity the reef supports will also be lost. The Great Barrier Reef is an example of how cultural losses can accompany environmental harm.

Climate change is causing desertification and soil degradation that is affecting us. One of the regions most affected is the Mediterranean, where the traditional olive groves and vineyards are an important part of the local culture and economy. And these cultural landscapes are already affected by rising temperatures and altered rainfall patterns, leading to severe soil degradation and reduced productivity: food production and the cultural landscapes at risk. Any erosion of these agricultural traditions implies an erosion of cultural heritage, being detrimental to tourism.

Climate change is a challenge to ecosystem services that needs to be addressed across the entire spectrum of mitigation and adaptation measures. Mitigation refers to activities that reduce the magnitude of anthropogenic climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing natural carbon sinks.

For example, the shift to renewable energy sources from fossil‑fuel energy, and the improvement of energy efficiency, can be a part of mitigation strategy; reforestation and afforestation can help to increase the carbon sink and stabilise local climates, in addition to providing wildlife habitat and resources for people. While mitigation targets climate change, adaptation policies aim to limit vulnerability – especially for humans and natural systems – to the impacts of climate change.

In agriculture, it would include efforts to develop and deploy more climate-resilient crop varieties and water-saving technologies. For fisheries, it would involve maintaining sustainable exploitation rates and protecting marine habitats.

In coastal zones, it would require reforestation of mangroves and restoration of other coastal ecosystems that can cushion rising sea levels and absorb storm surges. It would include engaging local communities in adaptation planning, to ensure that schemes are culturally appropriate and geared to locally defined needs of those affected most.

THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON INDIAN AGRICULTURE AND WATER RESOURCES - A CASE STUDY

India is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to its diverse geography, extensive agricultural sector, and significant population dependent on natural resources. The country experiences a range of climatic zones, from the Himalayas in the north to the coastal areas in the south, each facing unique climate-related challenges.

Impact on Agriculture: In India, the agricultural sector is vital to the country's economy, employing around 58% of the workforce. It is, therefore, also extremely vulnerable to climate change.

Significant hazards to agricultural productivity are posed by variations in temperature, precipitation patterns, and the frequency of extreme weather events like floods and droughts (WRI). Important crops such as lentils, wheat, and rice are susceptible to variations in temperature and monsoon patterns.

The Indian subcontinent depends largely on the monsoon season, which contributes about 80% of the nation's yearly precipitation. But the monsoon is now more unpredictable than ever, with some areas seeing intense rains that result in flooding and others having protracted dry spells. Particularly in areas that receive rain, this variability puts farmers' livelihoods and food security at risk.

Impact on Water Resources: Water resources in India are under immense pressure due to over-extraction, pollution, and inefficient management. Climate change exacerbates these issues by altering the hydrological cycle, leading to changes in river flows, groundwater levels, and the frequency of droughts and floods.

The Himalayan glaciers, which are crucial for India's water supply, are retreating at an alarming rate due to rising temperatures. This trend threatens the long-term water availability for millions of people in the northern plains who depend on glacier-fed rivers like the Ganges and Yamuna.

SOLUTIONS AND ADAPTATION STRATEGIES

Crop Diversification: Encouraging farmers to diversify crops can reduce the risk associated with climate variability. For example, promoting drought-resistant varieties of crops like millets and pulses can help sustain food production during dry periods.

Improved Irrigation Techniques: Implementing water-efficient irrigation systems, such as drip and sprinkler irrigation, can reduce water wastage and ensure optimal use of available resources.

Agroforestry: Integrating trees into agricultural systems can enhance biodiversity, improve soil health, and provide additional income sources for farmers.

Rainwater Harvesting: Encouraging rainwater harvesting, and groundwater recharge can help manage water scarcity, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions.

Sustainable Groundwater Management: Implementing policies and practices to regulate groundwater extraction is crucial to prevent over-exploitation and ensure long-term water security.

River Basin Management: Integrated river basin management can help optimize the use of water resources, considering the needs of all sectors, including agriculture, industry, and households.

Education and Awareness: Raising awareness about climate change and its impacts among farmers and local communities is essential for effective adaptation. Providing training on climate-resilient agricultural practices and water management techniques can empower communities to take proactive measures.

Local Adaptation Plans: Developing and implementing local adaptation plans that incorporate traditional knowledge, and practices can enhance resilience at the community level. Involving local stakeholders in decision-making processes ensures that adaptation strategies are culturally appropriate and locally relevant.

In summary, the combined challenges of climate change and the cascades of consequences for ecosystem services that result call for a way of thinking about sustainability that re-embeds environmental, social and economic considerations.

Ensuring and enhancing ecosystem services is therefore not just an environmental issue, it is instead a fundamental common denominator for all the improvements in human health, wellbeing and security that we seek.

The cross-case analysis presented here illustrates the multiple and transboundary consequences of climate change in time and space, and the high interconnections – both between landscape systems and across biomes – through which impacts in one system are propagated across the whole.

Faced with the vast challenges presented by a changing climate, we must acknowledge that ecosystems services are not limitless, and that our actions today will have implications for the world of tomorrow.

The words of John Muir remind us that the world is full of exceptional value, and we must do all in our power to keep it that way. By taking meaningful action to mitigate and adapt to climate change, we can provide a secure and resilient future for the services that sustain us, and for the people who rely upon them.

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BY PARI ARORA

CENTRE FOR ENVIRONMENT AND CLIMATE ACTION

TEAM GEOSTRATA

info@geostrata.com