Ancient Diplomacy in East and Southeast Asia

Ancient diplomacy went well beyond the battlefield, representing a rich tapestry of trade, cultural exchange, and the spread of religion. As opposed to contemporary diplomacy, which is frequently guided by its reliance on codified treaties and the law, ancient diplomacy was dynamic, influenced by common economic interests, political alliances, and common religious faiths.

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Nowhere was this truer than in the vibrant dialogues between India and the societies of East and Southeast Asia, where diplomacy did not always take the form of conquest but by the exchange of ideas, merchants, and emissaries over wide maritime and terrestrial networks.

One of the greatest channels of this interaction was the Maritime Silk Route, through which India's vast cultural and commercial links with countries like Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, and China were created. Indian traders, Buddhist and Hindu thinkers, and artisans transported goods, thoughts, and inventions across these vast trade routes, offering an integrated world centuries in advance of European colonial empires.

Among the most influential actors in this historical process were the South Indian kingdoms, particularly the Pallavas and the Cholas, whose naval prowess and mercantile ambitions contributed significantly to the diplomatic and cultural landscape of Southeast Asia. It is a key point of reference to understand modern Indian foundations.

This historical precedent resonates with India’s modern maritime security strategy, where the Indian Navy plays a critical role in securing sea lanes, ensuring freedom of navigation, and engaging in diplomatic efforts through forums such as the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) and SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region).

The Cholas, for instance, launched naval expeditions to present-day Indonesia and Sri Lanka, not merely as acts of warfare but as strategic moves to secure trade routes and reinforce alliances with local polities.

The Pallavas, on the other hand, played a vital role in transmitting Indian architectural and religious influences to Southeast Asia, as seen in the temple structures of Cambodia and Java. This cultural diffusion underscores India’s early exercise of soft power, a practice that continues today through initiatives like the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR), the promotion of yoga and Ayurveda, and the emphasis on historical connections in India’s Act East Policy.

The legacy of this ancient diplomacy is still visible today in the enduring linguistic, religious, and cultural affinities between India and Southeast Asia.

From the remnants of Sanskrit inscriptions in Southeast Asia to shared religious traditions and trade partnerships, the diplomatic engagements of the past continue to shape contemporary regional ties. This article explores the multifaceted nature of ancient diplomacy in East and Southeast Asia, examining how trade, religion, and cultural exchanges laid the foundation for lasting inter-regional connections that remain relevant even in the 21st century.

THE CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC LEGACY OF THE MARITIME SILK ROUTE

The Maritime Silk Route was one of the most significant conduits of cultural and economic exchange in the ancient world, linking India with the great civilisations of East and Southeast Asia. Unlike its overland counterpart, which primarily connected China with Central Asia and the Mediterranean, the maritime network facilitated the movement of goods, people, and ideas across the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea.

These sea routes enabled a flourishing trade system, fostering diplomatic engagements that were often built on mutual economic interests rather than military conquests.

Trade served as the primary vehicle for these interactions, with Indian merchants exporting spices, textiles, gemstones, and ivory to regions such as China, Champa (modern-day Vietnam), and the Srivijaya kingdom in Sumatra. In return, India imported silk, ceramics, and precious metals, strengthening economic interdependence. However, the significance of these exchanges extended beyond commerce. The Maritime Silk Route also became a channel for the transmission of ideas, religions, and artistic traditions, transforming the cultural landscape of Southeast Asia.

Indian traders did not travel alone—Buddhist monks, Hindu scholars, and artists accompanied them, playing a crucial role in spreading religious and philosophical doctrines. Buddhism, in particular, flourished as monks from India, including prominent figures like Faxian and Bodhidharma, traveled to China and beyond, translating Sanskrit texts into Chinese and influencing local religious practices.

Hinduism, too, left a profound impact, as seen in the adoption of Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata in Javanese and Cambodian traditions.

These cultural exchanges helped shape the religious and intellectual traditions of many Southeast Asian polities, including the Khmer Empire, the Majapahit Kingdom, and the Srivijaya dynasty.

The influence of Indian knowledge systems, languages, and architectural styles is evident across Southeast Asia. Sanskrit and Tamil inscriptions can be found in temples from Thailand to Indonesia, reflecting deep linguistic and scholarly ties. Texts such as the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and various Puranas in Sanskrit and Tamil were not only inscribed on temple walls but also adapted into local literary and performance traditions, shaping the cultural narratives of the region.

Indian architectural techniques, particularly those developed by the Pallavas and Cholas, inspired the construction of grand temple complexes such as Angkor Wat in Cambodia and Borobudur in Indonesia. These sites, blending local traditions with Indian aesthetics, stand as enduring symbols of ancient diplomatic and cultural exchanges.

Through trade, religious expansion, and artistic diffusion, the Maritime Silk Route shaped the historical trajectory of East and Southeast Asia. Its legacy persists today in shared cultural traditions, linguistic affinities, and economic partnerships, reinforcing the notion that diplomacy in the ancient world was not merely about statecraft but also about the deep and lasting bonds forged through commerce and cultural exchange.

INDIA'S DIPLOMATIC INFLUENCE IN EAST AND SOUTHEAST ASIA i

India’s engagement with East and Southeast Asia spans over two millennia, forming one of the most enduring diplomatic relationships in world history. Unlike the expansionist strategies of later colonial powers, India's influence in the region was largely driven by soft power diplomacy, centred on religion, culture, and knowledge exchange rather than direct political control. This long-standing interaction shaped the political, social, and artistic fabric of many Southeast Asian civilisations, laying the foundation for deep-rooted historical and diplomatic ties.

At the heart of India’s soft power diplomacy was the spread of Hinduism and Buddhism, which played a crucial role in integrating local societies with Indian traditions.

The transmission of religious philosophies was not forced but rather embraced by ruling elites who saw Indian thought as a source of legitimacy and wisdom. Hindu and Buddhist ideas influenced Southeast Asian governance, temple architecture, and artistic expressions, leading to the creation of monumental religious sites such as Angkor Wat in Cambodia and Borobudur in Indonesia. These architectural marvels, deeply embedded with Hindu-Buddhist symbolism, illustrate how Indian cultural and spiritual ideas were seamlessly adapted to local traditions.

Language and script further demonstrate India’s lasting influence. Sanskrit and Tamil-based scripts formed the foundation of many Southeast Asian writing systems, including Thai, Khmer, and Javanese. Indian epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata were reinterpreted in local folklore and theatrical traditions, solidifying India’s impact on literature and performing arts.

The Khmer inscriptions of the ancient Angkor Empire and the Pallava-influenced scripts of early Java exemplify this profound linguistic exchange.

Beyond culture and religion, Indian settlers and traders played a pivotal role in shaping governance and legal traditions in the region. Early Indian merchants, Brahmins, and scholars advised local rulers, introducing elements of Indian political philosophy and administrative practises. Many Southeast Asian polities, such as Funan, Srivijaya, and Majapahit, modelled their governance structures on Indian principles, integrating elements of Dharmaśāstra (Hindu legal codes) and Buddhist statecraft into their legal systems.

The presence of Indian diaspora communities in port cities facilitated economic and diplomatic ties, reinforcing India’s influence without direct territorial expansion.

India’s ancient diplomatic outreach to East and Southeast Asia highlights the power of cultural exchange in shaping international relations. The region’s shared linguistic, artistic, and spiritual heritage continues to influence contemporary diplomacy, trade, and strategic partnerships, demonstrating that India’s historical engagement was not merely a relic of the past but a foundation for enduring global connections.

ANCIENT INDIA'S INFLUENCE ON SOUTHEAST ASIA: THE ROLE OF THE PALLAVAS AND CHOLAS

The Pallava and Chola dynasties played a crucial role in shaping Southeast Asian polities through soft power diplomacy, primarily via religion, art, language, and governance. Unlike military conquests, their influence was embedded in cultural exchanges that defined the region’s architectural and political landscapes.

The Pallavas (4th–9th century CE) were instrumental in spreading Indian architectural styles to Southeast Asia. Their rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram inspired structures such as Prambanan in Indonesia and Angkor Wat in Cambodia. Additionally, the Pallava script became the foundation for Khmer, Javanese, and Thai writing systems, fostering deep linguistic ties between India and the region.

The Chola Empire (9th–13th century CE) flourished under rulers like Rajendra Chola I as they established naval dominance over Southeast Asian trade routes and strengthened diplomatic relations with Srivijaya (modern Indonesia and Malaysia).

While Chola-style temples, dedicated to Hindu deities, were built in Southeast Asia, the patronage of the dynasty also extended to Buddhist monasteries, contributing to the spread of Mahayana Buddhism.

Beyond art and religion, both dynasties introduced Indian legal and governance systems, with Southeast Asian rulers adopting elements from Dharmaśāstra and Arthashastra. Concepts of divine kingship, social hierarchy, and temple-based administration were integrated into local political structures.

The Pallavas and Cholas left a lasting legacy in Southeast Asia, evident in shared religious traditions, architectural marvels, and linguistic connections.

Their contributions illustrate how India’s ancient diplomacy, driven by cultural and economic exchanges, shaped the foundations of Southeast Asian civilisations, a legacy that continues to influence regional ties today.

HARD POWER DIPLOMACY: NAVAL EXPEDITIONS AND MILITARY INFLUENCE

While India’s influence in Southeast Asia was largely shaped by soft power diplomacy, the Chola Empire (9th–13th century CE) marked a significant shift by employing hard power strategies through naval expeditions. Unlike earlier interactions that relied on trade, religious exchange, and cultural diplomacy, the Cholas used their formidable navy to assert dominance over maritime trade routes, particularly in the Bay of Bengal and the Strait of Malacca. This transition highlights how military strength became an extension of India’s diplomatic and commercial ambitions in the region.

Rajendra Chola I’s 11th-Century Naval Expedition Against Srivijaya

One of the most remarkable examples of Chola military influence was the naval campaign led by Rajendra Chola I in 1025 CE against the Srivijaya Empire, which controlled vast maritime territories, including present-day Indonesia, Malaysia, and southern Thailand.

This expedition was not an act of territorial conquest but a strategic move to protect Indian commercial and diplomatic interests.

Strategic Goal: Control of Maritime Trade Routes

Srivijaya dominated the Strait of Malacca, a critical link between the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea, controlling the flow of lucrative trade goods such as spices, textiles, and precious metals. By attacking Srivijayan ports and disrupting its control, the Cholas sought to secure Indian merchant access to Southeast Asian markets and ensure that trade networks remained open and

Military Influence Without Territorial Expansion

Unlike later European powers, the Chola naval campaigns did not seek permanent territorial control over Southeast Asia. Instead, these expeditions were designed to protect India’s economic interests, strengthen diplomatic leverage, and ensure the stability of trade routes.

The Chola rulers viewed military power as a means of securing commercial advantages, reinforcing alliances, and demonstrating India’s naval capabilities to both allies and rivals.

Through these strategic naval campaigns, the Cholas showcased how military strength and diplomacy could coexist, ensuring India’s continued presence in Southeast Asian trade and politics. Their ability to blend hard power with cultural diplomacy remains a unique example of ancient Indian engagement in global geopolitics.

THE LASTING EMBERS OF ANCIENT INDIAN SOFT POWER IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

The cultural legacy of ancient Indian diplomacy continues to shape the identities, traditions, and artistic expressions of Southeast Asia. Despite centuries of transformation, remnants of India’s historical influence remain deeply embedded in the region’s religious practices, linguistic traditions, and governance structures. These enduring connections highlight how India’s early cultural diplomacy laid the foundation for present-day engagements, demonstrating the persistent impact of soft power in international relations.

Hindu and Buddhist Traditions: Indian religious philosophies, especially Hinduism and Buddhism, continue to thrive in Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, Laos, and Indonesia.

The grand temple complexes of Angkor Wat in Cambodia and Prambanan in Indonesia remain powerful symbols of Hindu-Buddhist heritage, drawing millions of visitors annually. Thai and Khmer monarchs still adopt titles and rituals rooted in Indian Dharmic traditions, showcasing the unbroken thread of Indian cultural influence.

Indian Epics in Southeast Asian Art Forms

The Ramayana and Mahabharata, which spread across Southeast Asia over a millennium ago, are still central to the region’s artistic and literary expressions. In Thailand, the Ramakien—a localized adaptation of the Ramayana—remains integral to classical dance and theatrical performances.

Similarly, Indonesia’s Wayang Kulit (shadow puppetry) continues to depict stories from these Indian epics, blending Hindu mythology with indigenous artistic traditions.

Recognizing these deep-rooted historical ties, India has actively sought to revitalize its diplomatic, cultural, and economic relations with Southeast Asia through its "Act East Policy". This initiative emphasizes strategic cooperation in trade, connectivity, and defense while reinforcing India’s soft power diplomacy through cultural exchanges.

Cultural Centers and Language Programs

India has established Indian Cultural Centers (ICCs) across Southeast Asia, promoting Hindi, Sanskrit, and Tamil language courses, yoga, and classical Indian dance and music. These centers serve as bridges between the past and present, strengthening people-to-people connections.

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Buddhist Diplomacy

India has also leveraged Buddhist heritage diplomacy to foster stronger ties with countries like Thailand, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka. Initiatives such as the Nalanda University revival, the Buddhist circuit tourism project, and joint archaeological research on ancient Buddhist sites reinforce India’s historical role as a spiritual and cultural hub.

From temple architecture to linguistic traditions and modern diplomacy, India’s ancient engagement with Southeast Asia remains a living reality.

The continued relevance of Hindu-Buddhist practices, epic literature, and shared artistic traditions demonstrates that India’s historical soft power diplomacy was not transient but transformative. Today, as India deepens its strategic partnerships in the Indo-Pacific, it is, in many ways, reviving the very connections that were first forged over two millennia ago.

CONCLUSION

Ancient diplomacy in East and Southeast Asia was defined by a unique blend of cultural integration and strategic assertion, with India playing a pivotal role in shaping the region’s civilizations. The Chola and Pallava kingdoms, through their patronage of art, religion, and governance models, established a legacy of soft power that has endured for centuries.

At the same time, their naval expeditions and strategic control over maritime trade routes reflect a more assertive form of diplomacy that ensured India’s sustained influence in the region.

Today, as India deepens its engagement with Southeast Asia, it is not merely forging new relationships—it is rekindling a civilizational dialogue that began over two millennia ago. The echoes of ancient Indian diplomacy remain alive, underscoring the profound and lasting impact of India’s early interactions with the world beyond its shores.

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BY KUSHUMIKA SIKDAR

TEAM GEOSTRATA

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